Exploring the timeless journey of scent, from ancient traditions to the world’s most luxurious fragrance
“When they rose, the scent of musk wafted from them, as the breeze of Ṣabā carried the fragrance of cloves.” These evocative lines from the pre-Islamic qasida Alā yā ayyoha-s‑sāqī — by the Arab poet Imru’ al-Qays — transport us into a world where fragrance was experienced directly in nature and daily life. Here, aroma transcended mere embellishment: it functioned as a language of its own — subtle, eloquent, and capable of expressing presence, identity, and emotion without a single word. The poem reflects how early societies perceived and valued natural scents — musky notes, floral hints, and fragrances carried by the wind — as conveyors of meaning, emotion, and identity long before perfumery as we know it emerged.
Scholars such as J. McHugh (A Cultural History of Scent, 2005) and E. Classen (The Deepest Sense, 2012) suggest that its earliest manifestations may date back to prehistoric times, and some interpretations propose that early humans experimented with aromatic substances in their daily or ritual life.
By the 2nd millennium BCE, olfactory practices had evolved into more formalised techniques. In India (c. 3000 BCE), aromatic extracts and essential compounds were used in ceremonial and medicinal contexts, while in China, fragrant materials were incorporated into temple rituals, imperial ceremonies, and traditional medical practices. Mesopotamia and ancient Persia (c. 2500–500 BCE) utilised myrrh, frankincense, and perfumed oils in religious rites and elite life, signalling wealth, power, and spiritual devotion. Some scholars have interpreted archaeological evidence from sites such as Atlit‑Yam as suggesting the use of aromatic substances in rituals, although direct evidence is limited. Tapputi‑Belatekallim, recorded on cuneiform tablets from Nineveh (c. 1200 BCE), is recognised as one of the earliest named perfumers. Egyptian tomb paintings and medical papyri, including the Ebers Papyrus (c. 1500–1200 BCE), attest to sophisticated aromatic preparations. Across the Mediterranean, Minoans, Phoenicians, and Cypriots traded fragrant substances and botanical extracts as luxury commodities, establishing cultural and sensory connections across regions.
The Greeks and Romans refined this heritage. Theophrastus (De Odoribus, 3rd century BCE) and Pliny the Elder (Naturalis Historia, 1st century CE) describe perfumed oils and aromatic unguents used in temples, medicine, and elite social gatherings. Roman banquets and public baths were infused with scent, garments perfumed, and fragrances regarded as symbols of civilisation and distinction. Imports from the East introduced rare botanical extracts, incense, and spices, creating a refined sensory culture among emperors and aristocrats.
The Arab world elevated perfumery to extraordinary heights of cultural and poetic expression. From the Arabian Peninsula to the courts of Damascus, Baghdad, and Andalusia, oud (aromatic agarwood), ambergris, myrrh, and damask rose permeated daily life, devotional practices, and ceremonial occasions. The ancient incense trade routes linking Arabia, East Africa, and India were not merely commercial; they were arteries of cultural exchange, carrying knowledge, techniques, and aesthetic ideals across continents. This demonstrates how perfume embodies deep cultural and spiritual values, fostering respect and curiosity. Arab poets mastered this invisible language. Al-Mutanabbī transformed aromatic nuances into metaphors of nobility and personal grandeur, while Ibn Zaydūn, in Islamic Andalusia, conjured rose-scented gardens where memory, longing, and love intertwined. Their verses allow us to sense the delicate waft of fragrances lingering in palaces, desert gardens, and oases — a timeless sensory experience.
Western fascination with these aromas developed over the centuries. Roman tradition recounts that Mark Antony and Cleopatra may have used complex fragrant compositions; archaeological reconstructions suggest blends of myrrh, cinnamon, cardamom, and olive oil, although this cannot be confirmed with certainty. Centuries later, Renaissance France embraced Eastern olfactory culture: Catherine de’ Medici introduced Italian perfumery techniques to Paris. At the same time, Grasse (in Provence, southern France) became the European centre for the cultivation of roses and jasmines. In England, Elizabethan courts adorned themselves with scented gloves, pomanders, and aromatic waters as markers of sophistication (E. Burke-Gaffney, The Scented Court, 2021). In Italy, particularly Venice and Florence, perfumed waters, essential oils, and floral distillates were integrated into courtly rituals, combining craftsmanship, artistry, and luxury (G. Castelli, L’Arte del Profumo in Italia, 2017). These Western practices, influenced by Arab traditions, laid the foundation for modern perfumery.
Today, these ancient customs remain vibrantly alive in Arab societies. The ritual burning of bakhoor — incense made of aromatic wood chips and resins — in a mabkhar, the traditional Arabian censer, fills homes with rich smoke, scenting garments and marking moments of welcome, contemplation, and devotion. Modern adaptations — electric diffusers and portable vapourisers — preserve tradition while offering convenience. Perfume is not merely an adornment; it is a gesture, a language, and an act of hospitality, evoking warmth, nostalgia, and a sense of belonging. Daily fragrance rituals retain profound cultural significance. Men often choose oud, amber, and musk — bold, enduring notes that convey authority and gravitas — while women prefer rose, jasmine, or lighter woody accords, which project elegance and refinement. Careful layering and diffusion of fragrances form a silent dialogue, expressing identity, status, and values without a word being spoken.
This rich heritage finds spectacular expression in luxury perfumery with Shumukh (sublime), the most expensive fragrance in the world, created by The Spirit of Dubai Parfums and crafted by master perfumer Asghar Adam Ali. The three-litre flacon, adorned with 3,571 diamonds, gold, and pearls, is valued at £990,000 / AED 4,752,000. Its complex composition — Indian oud, Turkish rose, amber, musk, sandalwood, patchouli, and ylang-ylang — evokes historic trade routes and poetic sensibilities, inspiring awe for the artistry and cultural depth of modern olfactory art.
Perfume transcends opulence, embodying memory, identity, and culture distilled into air. Every waft of bakhoor, bespoke blend, and carefully layered fragrance preserves history, tradition, and poetic imagination, tracing a continuous, invisible dialogue from ancient practices to modern boutique perfumery. Its power lies in transcending time and space, evoking bustling markets, scented gardens, royal chambers, and contemporary elegance. Simple gestures — layering oud with rose, burning bakhoor, choosing a bespoke fragrance — become rituals that are felt rather than spoken. Modern practices continue to honour this heritage as families preserve ancestral rituals, markets flourish with scents for everyday and ceremonial use, and perfumers experiment with contemporary compositions while remaining rooted in time-honoured techniques.
Ultimately, perfume is the invisible language linking generations, cultures, and geographies — a narrative without words, memory made tangible, and identity expressed silently. From the smoke of a mabkhara to the luxurious notes of bespoke creations, the Arab world communicates through scent, whispering stories that endure across time and space. Perfume remains a living tradition, a sensory bridge transcending East and West, past and present, making the invisible tangible, a medium where history, poetry, and luxury intersect in daily ritual, cultural expression, and subtle communication that continues to inspire, captivate, and define generations.
By Katya Marletta